History of Resistance Literature in Iran
Regardless of Ferdowsi and Naser Khosro, one could argue that although Persian poetry has always – even before the arrival of Islam in Iran – including the elements of protest and Iranian poets in all eras, explicitly or implicitly, sought to criticize power, a poet who may rightly be called a “poet of resistance” has not emerged in the Persian language before the periods of awakening and Constitutionalism.
The awakening of Iranians and the public uprising against absolute monarchy and foreign interference are the results of economic, political, social and intellectual factors as well as a chain of accelerating temporary causes and facilitators that peaked during the period of Muzaffar al-Din Shah and manifested in the form of the Constitutional movement. Although Iranian Constitutionalism was theoretically sterile, it became the source of many developments in all aspects of life, including poetry and literature. The prevalence of modern political-social concepts such as homeland (in today’s sense), law, freedom, parliament, etc., brought a deep change into the subjects and as a result, the development of individual and social life of Iranians and finally the form of Persian poetry. In the meantime, the first modern stories in the Persian language were also written.
Various forms of the themes such as the struggle against tyranny, patriotism, anti-colonialism, and seeking justice were reflected in the poetry of Constitutionalist poets, from Adib al-Mamalek Farahani to Farrukhi, Eshqi, Aref, Nasim, Lahouti, etc. The life and poetry of these poets are influenced by the best manifestations of resistance, and terror, exile, imprisonment and confinement were their common destiny. In any case, the literature of the Constitutional movement will be the source of all currents of the Resistance Literature of the later periods.
Furthermore, the roots of Islamic, Nationalist and Marxist Resistance Literature in the first and second Pahlavi periods lie in the Constitutionalist literature. In fact, the literary heritage of poets such as Adib Pishavari, Nasim Shomal, and Malek al-Shu’ara Bahar, etc., with a patriotic attitude that sometimes turns to Islamic cosmopolitanism, later on (during the Pahlavi period and after the Islamic Revolution until today) reaches a group of writers and poets who address the oppression of the Islamic world – from Lebanon and Palestine to Afghanistan and the Balkans and from Iraq, Levant and Iran to Yemen, Bahrain and Nigeria – with the difference that the main goal in the poems of the previous poets is the unity of the Islamic world and Shi’ah and Sunni brotherhood whereas gradually this ideal gives way to a kind of inter-religious conflict.
You may ask why these places are left in ruins,
India, Khwarazm, Afghanistan and Iran.
... Religious differences in Islam
have darkened our day like night.
Our honour depends on two things,
first unity and then religion.
... India, Turkey, Egypt and Iran,
Tunisia, Persia, Caucasus and Afghanistan,
Two in identity but one in religion,
different bodies but united.
If a Muslim cries in Tanjeh,
another believer would also cry in Badakhshan.
This is the way and custom of worshipers,
it is the day of unity and integration.
The source of the national-religious tendencies in the Resistance Literature, and even extreme, anti-Islam and anti-Arab nationalism, may also be found in the era of Constitutionalism.
The foreigner has attacked our religion,
unfortunately, both our country and religion will be destroyed.
The current Marxist Resistance Literature is also rooted in the concerns Aref Qazvini, Farrokhi Yazdi, Abul-Qasem Lahouti, etc. had with respect to the working class and rural population. In sum, the movements of Resistance Literature in Iran between two revolutions (the Constitutional Revolution and Islamic Revolution) are influenced by the Resistance Literature of the Constitutional movement. The Leftist literature the themes of which were focused on workers and peasants (e.g. Farrokhi and Lahuti) continued in social symbolism covered by Nima, Kasraei, Shamlu, etc. And the flow of national Resistance Poetry, which started with the patriotism and cosmopolitanism of Islamic writers like Adib and was conflated with a new perspective on the concept of homeland and nation in the poets of Aref, Eshqi, etc., reaches its peak in the poets of Akhawan with an inclination towards ancient Iran’s socialism. On the other hand, the current of Islamic Resistance Literature is subject to decline for a while, yet rises again on the eve of the Islamic Revolution and under the influence of the views of Ali Shari’ati and the efforts of Imam Khomeini (ra). Therefore, during the first half of the 1980s, a large number of resistance poems, stories and plays with an Islamic tendency were produced, a phenomenon which we know today as the literature of the Islamic Revolution.
The poetic literature of the Islamic Revolution – with the beginning of the war in 1980- turned into poetry and the story of the Sacred Defence (Iran-Iraq War), and Iran’s Resistance Literature continues its life in a new form. The long period of Sacred Defence is associated with the reflection of human virtues in the words, behaviour and thoughts of the warriors. Virtues that on the one hand are manifested by relying on national and religious culture in the form of altruism, patriotism, seeking martyrdom, self-sacrifice, anti-oppression and mystical behaviour, and on the other hand, within eight years of resistance and steadfastness in the face of hardships of war such as devastation, displacement, captivity, martyrdom and its consequences, lead to this perception that committing to protecting this precious heritage is the mission of poets and writers and accomplishing it would contribute to preserving the Resistance Literature in the country.
Components of the Resistance Literature in Iran
Since resistance is a category related to the content of the literature, its components also often deal with the themes and contents. The Resistance Literature, in its specific and correct definition, has general and comprehensive elements including the emphasis on freedom and human equality, upholding common human values and observing international rights and obligations.
The Components of the Literature of the Islamic Revolution
Given the religious nature of the Islamic Revolution and then the Sacred Defence, faith constitutes the main component of this section of the Resistance Literature in Iran and in line with the human instinct is linked to common human values. As the Muslim warriors engaging in the struggles against the tyrants as well as those who fought against the Ba’thist regime were inspired by religious teachings; the writers and poets engaging in Resistance Literature also need the Islamic and Shiite cultures in narrating these sacrifices. However, the specific elements of the literature of the Islamic Revolution at the beginning of the second half of the 1980s, which is mostly reflected in the poetry, can be summarized in the following categories:
a) Addressing topics such as praising freedom and hating tyranny; praising the imam and the leader of the movement; paying tribute to revolutionary and anti-tyranny fighters; calling for unity and avoiding division; condemning the authoritarian system and its agents; criticizing the aristocratic tendencies; being anti-arrogance and anti-colonialism; praising Jihad and martyrdom, martyrs and those sacrificing their lives.
b) Utilizing the mythological, epical, historical, religious and patriotic cultural heritage, particularly within the history of Shi’ah and among the figures who lived during the early days of Islam such as Abu Dharr, Salman, especially the personalities present in the event of Ashura, the history of Iran and revolutionary figures such as Mirza Kuchak Khan Jangali, Seyyed Jamaluddin Asadabadi, etc. as the role models for struggle.
c) Paying attention to the personality of the leader of the Revolution, Imam Khomeini (ra) as a symbol of resistance and fighting against tyranny, and arrogance and using the thoughts of the thinkers who lived during the Revolution, especially Dr. Ali Shari’ati, who had the greatest impact on the mind and language of the first generation of poets and writers of the Islamic Revolution. Moreover, his intellectual and ideological system in the context of interrelating concepts such as ummah and imamate, truth and expediency, red Shi’ah and black Shi’ah, oppression and arrogance in addition to exploitation and colonialism, power and wealth, etc. have been employed by the poets and writers. Furthermore, a wide range of revolutionary poets from Hamid Sabzevari and Mousavi-Garmaroudi to Nemat Mirzazadeh have composed poems about Imam Khomeini (ra) and Shari’ati.
C) The gradual return of Resistance Poetry to the traditional forms is seen as a manifestation of the motto of the Revolution i.e., “returning to oneself” in the field of literature. Revival of the form of the Ghazal in which the concept of epic emerged is one of the results of such a return to tradition.
The Components of the Literature of Sacred Defence
The Components of the Literature of Sacred Defence in the Early Years of the War
Iraq’s invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980 surprised people and artists. At that time, poetry was the main actor in preserving and promoting Resistance Literature. With a brief look at the literary works of the time, contents such as humiliating and condemning the trespassing enemy, encouraging people to go to the battlefield, enduring the sufferings and devastations of war, trying to drive out the enemy, addressing the bravery of the warriors and supporting them, and most importantly praising the value of the martyr and seeking martyrdom – which distinguishes the literature of the Sacred Defence from that of war in the world – are more visible in poetry, story and other literary genres. The poetry affiliated with this period is very explicit and tragic and unlike the Resistance Poetry before the Islamic Revolution, is mostly composed in a classical and traditional form with resonant and melodious rhythms. The combination of Islamic and Iranian symbols is one of the prominent features of such poetry written in that period. Despite being simple and propagandistic, the stories covering the theme of the Sacred Defence at that time inclined toward a kind of indigenous realism based on religious elements in contemporary Iranian literature.
The Components of the Literature of Sacred Defence During the War
During the war, the programs and activities of some cultural institutions like the Department of Art of the Islamic Propagation Organization as well as its affiliated publications, magazines and publishers such as “Surah,” led to the emergence of a new generation of young and revolutionary writers and poets many of whom had the experience of being on the front lines of the war. In the shadow of these efforts and developments, the art of Sacred Defence in all fields including literature reached a kind of enhancement and sophistication in terms of language and expression. With the formation of the special symbols of war and while using the facilities and capacities of most genres and appropriate available schools in addition to writers and poets engaging in the literature of the Sacred Defence, the technical development of the literature of Sacred Defence moves towards deeper aspects and layers of the war thereby showing the beauty of its mystical and human aspects that lie within the heart of this terrifying phenomenon.
The Components of the Literature of Sacred Defence after the End of the War
The important historical event that occurred after the war and created a wave in the literary space of the country thereby influencing a wide range of poets and writers, was the death of the leader of the Revolution and the fighters, Imam Khomeini (ra). While reflecting on the emotional impact of this event on the Iranian nation many stories, dramas and narratives addressed this issue to re-emphasize the ideals of this noble personality. The publication of several collections of poems on the occasion of Imam Khomeini’s demise and its anniversaries was the literary response of Iranian and even foreign poets to this event. Another important event that provided new themes for the literature of Sacred Defence was the return of the prisoners of war to the country who had bitter and sweet memories which provided valuable resources to artists interested in the literature of Sacred Defence.
The nature of the steadfastness of the freed prisoners who endured all kinds of torture and pressures in the enemy’s prisons while relaying on their revolutionary faith provided a new perspective for reviewing the themes of Resistance Literature. Another event that introduced new content to the literature of Sacred Defence is the issue of construction and restoration of many ruins caused by the war in all cultural, social, economic, etc. fields, which naturally raised the concern for preserving the works and values related to the Sacred Defence that has been created as the result of the eight-year sacrifice and martyrdom of the sincere young people. Therefore, the concern of forgetting the values of the Sacred Defence and the lofty goals of the martyrs is among the most important themes covered in the literature of Sacred Defence. Other themes of the literature of the Sacred Defence after the war include:
The nostalgia of the war and the regret of not being among the martyrs, worrying about forgetting the ideals of the martyrs and Sacred Defence, problems and sufferings of veterans and their families, aristocracy, lavishness and misusing the names of martyrs, spending the spiritual capital of jihad to realize material and worldly interests, the return of the martyrs’ bodies and the issues surrounding the missing and unknown martyrs as well as its reflection in society, etc.
Opportunities for Resistance Literature in Iran
The most lasting literary works of the world have been linked to the category of war and Resistance Literature directly or indirectly. Therefore, the Resistance Literature in itself is considered an opportunity for the emergence of the literary elements of a nation, but the Resistance Literature in Iran provides special opportunities some of which we examine in the following.
Historical Experiences
The East, especially the Middle East and Islamic lands, is the paradise of Resistance Literature. The fire of war has not been extinguished in this region for almost 1,500 years. During these years, Levant, Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan, Iran, the Balkans, Lebanon, Palestine, etc., have been involved in domestic and foreign wars. In this picture, Iran has a special place. A land whose people claim superiority in enduring autocratic and foreign regimes. This is reflected in the comment the Syrian researcher Mohammad Hamweyeh made regarding the translation of a book on Resistance, “Iranians are great actors in the field of the resistance against the autocrats and dictators.”
Shi’ism
Given that Shi’ah as a political-religious protesting minority has always been under the oppression of autocrats, the oppression of Shi’ah leaders, and especially the events of Ashura and martyrdom of Imam Husayn (a) with all their epical aspects, have provided a role model for the Iranian people in Jihad and resistance inspiring the poets and writers in recording epics of Sacred Defence.
Shi’ah Islam is the religion of resistance, and the first current of Resistance Literature after Islam is the poetry covering the Shiite resistance. Farzadaq, Akhtal, Kumayt, Debel, etc., are the flagships of this literary trend in the history of Islam and Arabic literature. Given the religious orientation of Sacred Defence in Iran, it seems that the religion of Islam and especially Shi’ism with a history full of oppression and having the two meta-historical concepts of Ashura and Awaiting is one of the important opportunities for Resistance Literature in Iran.
Global and International Capacities
The Resistance Literature in Iran, on the one hand, carries Islamic concepts and teachings and basic concerns of the Islamic world which, along with translating pertaining published works in this field, would lead to drawing the attention of many audiences in Islamic countries and conveying the messages of the Resistance Literature of Iran to the international community, and on the other hand, the Persian language in which many people in the world have interest and is the official language of at least three big countries in the region, could convey the message of the resistance of the Iranian nation to regional and international Persian-speaking communities. Add to that the fact that at the same time that Iran was subject to an imposed war, some countries including Afghanistan, were engaged in an ideological war with the Russians and hence suffered a common pain.
Also, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Tajikistan was witnessing internal strife of political groups and tendencies and the immigrant and indigenous poets and writers of both countries, as their words indicate, were influenced by the Resistance Literature of Iran. Another point in this regard is the crystallization of real and innovative manifestations of human virtues in the Revolution and especially the Sacred Defence which if properly addressed in art and other works can be attractive for people across political, linguistic, ethnic and... borders. Furthermore, in the field of research, the literature of Sacred Defence as the most indigenous category of literature in today’s Iran enjoys various capabilities which could contribute to carrying out comparative studies with similar works in other cultures and countries.
The literature of the Islamic Revolution has a religious nature and is mostly reflected in poetry. Themes such as praising freedom, hating tyranny, describing and praising the divine leader of the movement, being anti-oppression and calling for unity, condemnation of aristocracy and praising jihad and martyrdom while relying on cultural supports of myths, history, religion and nationality, are all realized and understood with the induction of such an epical spirit in literature.
Reference: Journal of Contemporary Persian Literature. Vol 7, No. 2, Summer 2017, Pp 1-33.
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