Typically, a country allows the military presence of another state in its territory when the two have similar perceptions of a common threat or common good. However, long-term presence in the host country may lead to political, social and environmental problems, which are listed below:
Sovereignty
By definition, a military base is an installation created to serve as support for military operations and logistics. These facilities can play different roles, being related to several types of bases, such as navy, land or airbases. Depending on the role it takes, there are many functions that these settlements can exert: test ranges for new weaponry, posts of intelligence operations, platforms for military operations, weaponry stock or even as host for military corps. The main controversial issue concerning military bases is their establishment in foreign states’ territory, a common practice related to the global distribution of power in spheres of influence. Usually linked with great powers’ foreign policy, military installations abroad have led the international community to many debates associated with the principle of sovereignty.
The establishment of military bases creates the sphere of influence of the sending governments and violates the sovereignty of the host country. The United States is building bases in the countries which are ruled by authoritarian regimes in exchange for political and economic support. Such an act is a violation of the national sovereignty of the country and interference in the internal affairs of the host country. A clear example of the violation of the principle of sovereignty occurred at the Diego Garcia base in 1960; when American forces occupied it, the inhabitants were expelled from there and their damages were not compensated, and this is a clear violation of sovereignty. In other words, the host country will lose its effective sovereignty over part of its territory.
With the rise of the number of foreign military bases in the late twentieth century, the need to resolve this contradiction under international law has become a clear necessity. The Visiting Force Agreement (VFA) and the Status of Force Agreement (SOFA) can be discussed in this context. These contracts, known in American literature as the “Agreement on the Establishment of Forces,” were signed during the Cold War with forty countries and have since been concluded with 90 countries. furthermore, these agreements had been signed with NATO member states, as well as Japan and South Korea. The study of such contracts has shown that they do not have the same form and criteria, and depending on the views of both parties, they may differ from each other both in time and in circumstances, and affected by concerns about the legal status of foreign troops in host countries, all of them elaborate on the status of technical and administrative staff in accordance with the privileges acknowledged by the convention on diplomatic relations. Although the SOFA is usually a supplement to agreements on transferring the military bases and is often part of a comprehensive security agreement, it is negotiated separately with the host country and allows the United States to conduct operations within that country.
The VFA covers the presence of troops in a foreign country, while the SOFA regulates the location of the military units in the host country. Both agreements give priority to extraterritorial law over domestic law. The principle of transnationality refers to the exercise of legal power beyond the territorial boundaries of the state. This means that countries with military forces outside the borders have the right to exercise exclusive jurisdiction regarding the issues related to their military units in foreign countries.
Such agreements regulate the establishment of foreign bases under international law. With the principle of trans-territoriality, which is the main foundation of the VFA and SOFA, the great powers provide legal protection for their forces abroad.
Environment
From the environmental viewpoint, military bases can be aggressions practiced at the local level. Testing new weaponry, including chemical and nuclear weapons, might represent a risk of contamination and accidents. Substances based on uranium, for example, can infect the soil and the water and reach the whole population.
By using a variety of chemicals and radioactive materials, conducting nuclear tests, producing toxic and hazardous waste materials, polluting water in the area around factories and, most dangerously, using weapons containing weak uranium in Iraq, Afghanistan and the Balkans, the American military has made negative impacts on the environment which, in addition to American troops, jeopardize the life and health of citizens as well as residents who live near the United States military bases in countries like South Korea, the Philippines and Panama.
In places where military bases are created, there are complex environmental issues. Types of pollutants in military facilities create chemicals such as solvents, diluents and metals such as lead, Cadmium, and so on. Another example of contamination is using perchlorate in military installations. It is one of the most important pollutants used in the production of rocket fuels and ammunition. The penetration of this substance into groundwater as well as underground water has caused concerns. The contamination caused by Perchlorate may last long. Establishing military bases in areas that have ecological significance, such as wetlands or areas that are protected as habitats, would put them at risk.
These include the destruction of vegetation, the increase in carbon dioxide, water pollution caused by military equipment and vehicles, the extinction of animals, and soil pollution especially with weakened uranium existed in ammunition. Toxic ash coming from heavy military vehicles is another part of environmental damages that also endangers human health.
The American databases abroad have created environmental problems for the host country, such as adding toxic substances in drinking water, making explosives and noise pollution. Dangerous pollutants such as nerve gases, diluted uranium and hazardous metals are created at military bases. Also, dangerous chemicals that flow over the ground or leak into the water can cause disease in local communities. Mustard gas and heavily contaminated chemicals have been found in Guam forests and Okinawa respectively. Toxic chemicals and lead disrupt the ecosystem cycle, destroy biodiversity, and endanger marine life.
In 2000, the former American Secretary of State Madeleine Albright while acknowledging causing serious environmental problems in the Philippines, stated that the United States had no legal obligation to clean up the deadly waste. However, “domestic and international laws regarding the disposal of military waste have defined and emphasized rules and regulations for the protection of the environment.”
Lucinda Marshall, a leading American author, has researched the impact of military bases on the environment. In her view, the number of health and environmental problems reported in areas close to military centers and bases around the world is increasing.
Economy
The establishment of American military bases should not, of course, be seen simply as only military action. They are always used to promote the economic and political objectives of American capitalism. For example, American corporations and the government have been eager for some time to build a secure corridor for American-controlled oil and natural gas pipelines from the Caspian Sea in Central Asia through Afghanistan and Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. This region has more than six percent of the world’s proven oil reserves and almost 40 percent of its gas reserves. The war in Afghanistan and the creation of the American military bases in Central Asia are viewed as key opportunities to make such pipelines a reality.
The economic development and the thirst for gaining control over the resources have brought the United States to this region. Controlling Eurasia’s underground, military, political, and economic resources is one of the most important aims of the United States in the Middle East and Central Asia. The goal is waging war and establishing bases so that the United States could control the Middle East and the vast oil resources of this region.
The United States has control over 191 United Nations member states in various ways. In addition to invading and occupying several countries, the United States can cover the entire planet (continents, oceans, and space) through an integrated network of military bases and facilities. These are related to a vast empire in which its dimensions cannot be easily recognized. The military bases have a fundamental impact on regional and domestic economic growth. A number of cities are close to military bases. Urban transportation systems play a significant role in military bases. Highway systems are vital to military bases.
The military presence has economic benefits for the host community. The base increases the level of employment and creates working opportunities for urban workers and spends their dollars in the local economy.
Maintaining military bases is associated with at least some demand for local goods. The presence of a military base contributes directly to military and civilian employment in the area. The base also necessitates an improvement in the surrounding infrastructure for the obvious purpose of accessibility. A closure would naturally affect the local and regional transportation infrastructure. In practical terms, the base could be considered as a form of regional subsidy from the federal government to the local community.
The key post-Cold War goal for the United States was assuring American access to Asian markets. The United States’ military presence was seen as providing stability, the precondition for advancing the regional economic growth necessary to generate markets for American goods. While maintaining its military bases in the Philippines, prior to being asked to leave later in 1991-92, the United States shifted its focus in Southeast Asia from security to economic issues, particularly the promotion of free trade. In Southeast Asia, the United States turned to a strategy that focused on access to the markets, preventing the growth of regional rivals, maintaining the military bases and facilities to ensure freedom and claim promoting democracy in that region.
The maintenance of military bases imposes great costs on the great powers. Huge investment in infrastructure, along with defence spending, in addition to imposing a heavy burden on the general budget of countries, would create large costs on the international stage for great power. A shrinking defence budget, host-nation opposition to the foreign military presence, and the increasing vulnerability of many overseas bases are endangering the sustainability of the military bases in host countries. To resolve these problems, the temporal presence of foreign forces would lower the costs and decrease the resistance of the local population. In the coming years, these factors will likely force the Pentagon to make difficult decisions, which could include divesting some legacy bases.
Security
The military bases act as the spine of the military structure of the United States, NATO and the European Union. These bases are directly in the service of the great powers for conducting various operations, such as overthrowing the governments or exerting pressure in diplomatic negotiations and so on. These bases are tasked with controlling countries that are potentially seen as a threat to the United States.
The American military presence reassures allies. This is a symbol of the commitment of the United States to regional security and an important factor in the strategic calculations of the allies. The American military presence in or near the territory of its allies is an important factor in building and maintaining relations with them. The military presence of the great powers in different regions is part of their foreign policy and is based on their perception of security threats in their sphere of influence or understanding of the degree of threats or the possibility of their occurrence.
During the Cold War, the United States thought that the establishment of a military base in the Philippines would be an important element against Soviet military power. Military bases are the links between the government and the region where the base is located. Historically, the location of the military base is based on strategic motives. Experts cite strategic reasons for building bases. In the view of Zoltán Grossman, a geographer at The Evergreen State College, with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the United States established 35 new bases between Poland and Pakistan to expand its sphere of influence in the region.
As the war in Afghanistan required, American foreign policy in Central Asia focused on the establishment of a military base in the region and the provision of military supplies to the American military forces and its allies. The war in Afghanistan created a real agenda for cooperation with the Central Asian states and the promotion of regional cooperation. The importance of Central Asia in the war against Afghanistan lies in the establishment of military bases and participation in logistics.
The political significance of American bases in the Philippines, as a symbol of the American presence in Southeast Asian countries, is preventing regional powers from interfering. Overall, the American military presence in the Asia-Pacific region seeks to achieve foreign policy goals such as deterring conflicts, reassuring allies and maintaining influence.
In other words, the American strategy in Afghanistan was not just fighting terrorism, but establishing permanent bases to control China and Russia and prevent the empowerment of Iran.
In Asia, North Korea is a threat to the United States’ bases in South Korea, Japan and Guam, as well as the United States’ position in the Asia Pacific. There are three United States’ troops in this region: The infantry in South Korea, the navy in Japan and the air force in Guam. From this base, the United States can respond quickly to threats.
During the Cold War, the United States maintained a network of military bases in the Asia-Pacific region to protect its interests and defend its allies. Some policymakers have argued that closing the United States’ base in the region will lead to establishing peace and making an investment in the country by reducing the budget to the benefit of the country. But the opposite view is that the United States’ military presence in the region, along with engagement with China, is effective in providing stability and reducing the tensions over China’s emergence and the possibility of the beginning of an arms race.
In 2002, the United States National Security Strategy, bases were used to counter security threats. For example, after the closure of Karshi-Khanabad Airbase, Manas Airbase was the only United States airbase in Central Asia. Manas had been established on December 4, 2001, under a Partnership Agreement between the United States and Kyrgyzstan. Under the agreement, the Pentagon took a $2 million lease on the airbase. Manas was not only strategically important for the United States and NATO forces in Afghanistan in terms of logistical support, but also it was just 320 km far from Xinjiang, the westernmost province of China, and thus the nuclear site of Loop Noor in that province, would be within the range of the United States’ airstrikes.
Exacerbation of Tension and Mistrust
Establishing a base abroad can highlight the security elements of the place, promote distrust between political actors, and ultimately increase political instability in the region and the world. Agreements such as the SOFA which is signed with a non-democratic local government (dictatorial government) are seen as authoritarian and illegitimate policies. In addition, undermining regional security and vulnerability to foreign attacks are considered as threats to the infrastructure of the host country.
Normally, in host countries, local resistance and public protests, social movements, and political opposition to the military presence of major powers take place. Opposition groups say that the bases are designed for security. Different movements and groups affiliated with American bases are aimed at protecting the environment, committing sexual violence, gaining access to resources and land all of which are the common concerns of communities around the bases. With the establishment of the United States military bases in Afghanistan, all neighbouring countries and even the region felt concerned. In particular, Chinese resentment is palpable, and the Russians do not hide their displeasure with the Americans; although the Indians have so far apparently done nothing, they are undoubtedly concerned, and they may express their displeasure in the future; Pakistan which apparently is the United States ally by no means has a positive view of this establishment, and the Islamic Republic of Iran, as it has been known for a long time, not only is concerned with this phenomenon but also it feels suspicious about it and will never want to witness the presence of a powerful yet harmful competitor along its geographical borders; this common view and position among these countries regarding the rumour of the establishment of a military base, will pave the way for American confusion in Afghanistan and beyond. Furthermore, each of those countries, alone or jointly, will put militant action against the Americans on its agenda. Undoubtedly, the existence of such conditions will cause Afghanistan to once again become a battleground for regional and even global powers. In other words, the resistance is hosted not only by domestic groups and movements but also by neighbouring countries that oppose establishing such bases. For example, in the case of the United States bases in Central Asia, Russia, Iran, China, and other regional powers have been pressuring host countries to reject the United States’ access to the Afghan government which was aimed at establishing bases in that country. Former Secretary of Defence Robert Gates has sought to establish a domestic military base in Afghanistan.
In his view, the United States is interested in a military presence in this strategic country. It is obvious that the establishment of the United States military bases in this strategic region will increase concerns in China, Iran, Russia and other neighbouring countries.
One of the things that cause political insecurity and instability is the granting of the right of Capitulation to the military personnel stationed in the host country. In the event of a crime, the courts of the host country do not have jurisdiction to deal with the crimes, and this is considered one of the roles of human rights. Granting the right of Capitulation will cause protests from various institutions and groups in the host country.
In the Pahlavi era in Iran, granting the right of Capitulation to the United States military forces provoked protests from individuals, institutions and various revolutionary groups and became one of the factors that started the Revolution in Iran. In countries where there are military bases, rights, freedoms and democracy are being undermined; the gap between people and political systems will be increased, people will lose their trust in the government, and the country’s independence will be challenged. Military assistance and the establishment of military bases affect electoral participation and domestic violence. Attacks carried out by militia are more common in countries that receive military aid from the United States than in countries that do not receive such assistance. Also, in cities where there is a military base, political participation would be decreased, especially when elections find a political nature. The United States may also weaken domestic political institutions by increasing military aid and strengthening non-governmental actors.
The United States faces political, military, and budgetary challenges for maintaining its presence in the Pacific West, but it pursues a strategy for military bases and facilities which is based on creating a setting for cooperation with its allies.
Gender
Another impact that the military bases make on the host country and the region is that foreign personnel in the surrounding areas of social bases commit social crimes and moral and public crimes, and due to legal and political protection, the host country cannot put them on trial. This phenomenon, in practice, violates the social and norms and values of the host country. The presence of military personnel with different or contradictory customs, cultures and traditions in the host country creates many worries and problems for the host nation. These problems are exacerbated when that personnel enjoy Capitulation.
The social instability resulting from political and environmental problems is linked to the crimes committed by foreign military personnel in the host country. For example, due to the crimes of foreign personnel in the communities around the bases, they often experience high levels of aggression and violent crimes committed by soldiers. All of these factors led to the formation of popular resistance movements against the presence of foreign troops. In 1995, the rape of a 12-year-old girl by three United States Marines drew widespread attention to violence committed against women in these communities. According to Okinawa Police, there have been 278 rape cases which were committed by American soldiers between 1945 and 1950. Local human rights groups have reported 200 sexual assaults between 1972 and 1997, citing Okinawa police records.
However, the real number of these cases are not published or they are not reported to the police because of distrusting the processes of criminal justice or historical reasons. In Okinawa, as one of the host communities of the United States military bases, crime is seen near the base. Since 1972, Okinawa has hosted 21,000 United States military personnel. The Okinawan Women Act against Military and Violence PACT reports that between 1972 and 1995, about 4,784 serious crimes against women were committed by Americans in Okinawa. These crimes have been left unpunished because of VFA, and that is why they are intensifying.
Removing the original inhabitants is another implication of setting the military bases. Especially when the original inhabitants of the hosting country are forced to leave their homeland. The case in point is Diego Garcia, an island located 1,000 miles south of India. In recent years, Diego Garcia has attracted global attention, as it was used for operations to attack the Taliban in Afghanistan after 9/11. Here, the original inhabitants were forced to move to the western Indian Ocean islands of Mauritius and Seychelles during the Cold War, and they have not been allowed to return to their homes since.
Conclusion
The establishment of military bases by the great powers indicates the expansion of a country’s power and influence beyond its borders to achieve various goals and objectives. These goals include increasing the sphere of influence, dominating and controlling geopolitical and geostrategic places, providing economic interests (especially gaining access to energy resources and controlling them) and controlling rival powers. Establishing military bases beyond borders is in line with the balance of power and regional and global political and military rivalries among great power.
Military bases and stations provide the necessary facilities for war. The United States would have faced a problem attacking and occupying Iraq if it had not established a base in Turkey, Germany, Diego Garcia, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf states. Establishing a base causes social and environmental problems at the local level. Societies around bases often experience high levels of foreign military aggression, violent crime, loss of land or livelihoods, pollution, and the dangers of testing conventional or unconventional weapons. Other negative consequences of the United States military presence include weakening the host country’s political system in order to become more dependent on the United States, influencing government officials, empowering local forces allied with the United States, disregarding the host country’s laws, creating a puppet state, plundering the country’s natural resources, and provoking the opposition parties to fight against the government for an indefinite time.
Violence against women, violations of local independence and environmental pollution are all part of the United States military activities. Also, disgracing values, norms and cultural and social elements is another consequence of the military presence in different countries. After the establishment of military bases, the Western culture will prevail in that community and hence a cultural antagonism would occur.
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