Political mobilization consists of four elements that we will examine in the context of the Islamic Revolution in Iran.
Ideology: In the Islamic ideology, the social order is subject to law, sovereignty belongs to God and law should be the divine law. Also, the authority which is given to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is from God. All the decrees issued by Prophet were in line with and following the divine laws and obeying the Messenger of God and Those in Authority (Uli al-Amr) is the command of God. In such a way of governance, there is no room for arbitrary interferences which exist in royal, monarchical, and imperial governments. The principles of Islamic political thought and especially Shi’a political jurisprudence such as the necessity of the sovereignty of the Ahl al-Bayt, the necessity of the existence of attributes such as justice and jurisprudential knowledge in the Muslim ruler, rejecting and not complying with the tyrannical rulers, observing taqiyyah in cases of danger to life and religion, belief in the establishment of a global government by Imam Mahdi who is now in occultation, all in all, have encouraged people to adopt revolutionary approaches and flourished this spirit among the Shi’ah scholars. The Islamic Revolution in Iran is a revolution that was founded upon Islamic ideology.
As mentioned, in order to enjoy popular acceptance, the ideology of the revolution should, while rejecting the existing system and values, develop the sense of having a favourable future for the revolutionaries. In Iran, there have been three ideologies since the beginning of the last century each has called upon the social groups: nationalism, socialism and Islam.
Nationalism was used as a tool to fight the domination of colonialists and foreigners. This ideology was able to attract the intellectual and educated classes as well as the urban middle classes, and even this thinking achieved significant success during the Constitutional Movement and the Nationalization of the Oil Industry. Because of being at variance with the beliefs of the people and the incompatibility of the characteristics of Iranian society with the standards of nationalism, this school did not find a solid popular base in the society.
Because of its non-religious nature, socialism failed to find the necessary base among the people. Although this revolutionary ideology in Iran was very effective because of its proximity to Russia since its atheistic essence was at variance with the religious beliefs of the Iranian people on the one hand and the Marxists’ strong attachment to Moscow on the other hand, the socialists were not only being recognized as a group dependent on the foreigners but also, they became a puppet of the international policies of Russia. But Islam, as a divine school of thought, had a historical and profound influence on Iranian society. Obviously, a society where at least 98% of the people are Muslims and follow Islamic law, is more likely to accept this kind of ideology.
Imam Khomeini, being aware of the people’s adherence to the ideals and values of Islam, while rejecting the rule of the monarchy, introduced his ideology of Islamic rulership based on the theory of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurisprudent (Wilayat al-Faqih). By presenting this ideology, Imam Khomeini presented an image of Islam that had all the benefits of the other opposing ideology and, on the other hand, it introduced a system in which the values and ideals of society were included. The ideology of the Islamic Revolution, unlike other political ideologies of the twentieth century, was to bring religion into political life, not to fight it. Ideology in the Islamic Revolution in Iran was an important part of the self-consciousness, and it was, in fact, created the Islamic Republic by offering the hope of reaching redemption.
On the one hand, the ideology of the Islamic Revolution in Iran required the rejection of the values that govern the Iranian society, especially its cultural and ethical aspects, and, on the other hand, it included the idea and goal of establishing a new political system based on the Islamic values and principles which in the light of the theory of Wilayat al-Faqih would be established and in accordance with the extent of mass mobilization would accomplish achievements. Add to this the fact that the cultural and religious fabric of the society is more consistent with the Islamic type of governance than any other governances which are considered illegal in the Shi’ah school of thought.
Leadership: Imam Khomeini, who had the experience of a combatant clergy, assumed leadership during the reign of Mohammad-Reza Pahlavi and did not allow others, including liberals, to lead and exploit the fruits of the people’s struggles. From the beginning, Imam Khomeini’s goal in the struggle was to fulfil the religious duty, not to win and fulfil his wishes and that of the people. Imam Khomeini, using his ingenuity, charisma and decisiveness and while relying on Islamic mottos and criteria, employed the strategies necessary to achieve an ideal society. He had special abilities in communicating with the masses, and he used to raise the most complex political and social issues simply and understandably, and influence people.
Imam Khomeini can be considered a leader who has the three characteristics of leadership namely being an ideologue, mobilizer and manager. From outlining the ideology of the Wilayat al-Faqih to mobilizing the masses against the monarchy and then the ten-year leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran, all indicate the special characteristics of a leader.
Imam Khomeini, when he was living in exile either in Turkey or Najaf, began teaching the concept of Wilayat al-Faqih and introduced to the people the basic plan of the post-revolution government illustrating that what type of government they are trying to establish. During this period, Imam Khomeini was able to play the role of the ideologue of the revolution in a proper way and through presenting the theory of Wilayat al-Faqih he outlined the main framework of the Islamic system for people.
Imam Khomeini as the ideologue of the revolution, before discussing the Islamic rule, ended the previous conservative style of struggle by highlighting issues such as the boycott of taqiyyah which is the most important obstacle to the political struggle, bringing the struggle to the centre of religious activities namely the Islamic Seminary of Qom in order to abolish the theory of the separation of religion from politics, attacking directly on the great foreign powers especially the United States, and focusing the struggles on the main centre of corruption that is the monarchy and the Shah; Moreover, Imam Khomeini, as the new religious leader of Iran after the Ayatollah Boroujerdi, offered a glimmer of hope to those who were eager to do struggle in such a way that the people sought their aspirations and ideals in Imam Khomeini’s views and personality, and hence he quickly gained popularity among people.
In the year 1977, the Pahlavi regime was forced to make changes in its authoritarian policies and develop more openness within the political space of society because of the existing cultural-social crisis and the widespread criticism of the existence of the closed political space. In the meantime, some conditions emerged in the society that paved the way for the return of the opposition groups. Imam Khomeini has had the experience of mobilizing society against the political system since the early 1960s, and during this time he maintained his relations with the strata of society and was thinking of creating a great revolution. He had therefore outlined a revolutionary intellectual policy.
With publishing an offensive article in the Ettela’at daily newspaper on January 7, 1978, against Imam Khomeini the religious feelings of the people were hurt and society entered into a state of revolution. Therefore, Imam Khomeini entered the second phase of leadership and took the responsibility of mobilizing the people. Being aware of the events that took place on January 9, 1978, in Qom and February 18, 1978, in Tabriz, Imam Khomeini while commemorating the Arba’in of those who had martyred in Qom and before the beginning of Ramadan, advised all preachers and scholars to expose the Shah’s atrocities in recent months and prepare people throughout the country for a comprehensive uprising. Following this order, in September 1979, the Eid al-Fitr prayer was held in honour of Dr. Mofatteh’s martyrdom. At the end of the prayer, the participants and even other people marched in protest of the regime’s atrocities.
Imam Khomeini while insisting that the Shah’s regime is about to fall and that this massacre is a sign of anxiety and a monstrous movement, emphasized preserving the spirit of self-confidence and courage among people during the revolution and promised the victory of the Iranian nation.
Following the distribution of Imam Khomeini’s leaflets, mass demonstrations against the Pahlavi regime in the form of demonstrations of September 8, 1978 (Black Friday) the demonstration of November 4, 1978, as well as the fateful march of Tasu’a and Ashura and Arba’in took place. These demonstrations, especially the one which took place during Tasu’a and Ashura, turned into a major religious display and a referendum without counting the votes.
With the arrival of Imam Khomeini in Iran and the march of the people in support of the interim government that took place on February 8, 1979, in response to his call, people, in fact, advocated the interim Islamic government in which even the military participated with the slogan “we are a part of your army.” In addition to the mass demonstrations, the mass strikes of people after Black Friday entered a new phase under the order of Imam Khomeini.
With the spread of strikes in government agencies and centres throughout the country, the Shah sought to halt the strikes by threatening and using force through ousting Sharif Emami and establishing a military government. But this made people more determined to continue the strikes and struggle. Imam Khomeini thus provided the basis for the participation of all people in the fight against the regime through demonstrations and strikes. The demonstrations that brought the largest population in human history to the streets and strikes may be considered the most successful form of struggle in the history of the labour movement.
Imam Khomeini, during the year following the victory of the revolution and based on what he had promised the community established the foundations of the Islamic Republic by holding several elections, including the referendum of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Assembly of Experts for Constitution election, the referendum of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the presidential elections and parliamentary elections along with the establishment of revolutionary institutions and thereby demonstrated his management capabilities.
In addition, Imam Khomeini showed his preciseness and intellectual acuity in controlling the internal crises of the country caused by opposition groups and insurgents and managing the situation during the eight-year imposed war against the Islamic Republic of Iran.
The Organization: the process of organizing and mobilizing human resources during the Islamic Revolution has been most influenced by Shi’ah ideology, including its identity-formative concepts and its objective communication mechanisms. The semantic and belief systems of the Shi’ah ideology, as a unifying structure and a factor of collective identity, have played an important role in the process of organizing.
The semantic systems serve as both sources and modes of expression and provide justification for carrying out actions in pursuit of collective goals. The belief systems which enjoy popular foundations are not only considered as maintaining the resources that could be used but also created a collective identity that could employ the non-cultural resources and facilitate their presentation.
With the revolutionary process reaching its peak, the clergy by using cultural resources were able to reinforce the sense of integration between the individuals and groups with the ideology of the movement. The powerful clerical organization as one of the mobilizers which were active during the movement of the Islamic Revolution, while possessing the necessary human resources on the one hand and favourable mental and social conditions, on the other hand, mobilized the mass of people.
The clergy used the conditions and facilities they traditionally possessed, such as the seminaries, mosques, husayniyyahs, shrines and other religious sites along with the numerous Islamic holidays throughout the year such as the months of Muharram, Safar, Ramadan, Sha’ban and the days of Tasu’a and Ashura, Arba’in, Ayyam al-Fatimiyyah as well as Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Eid al-Ghadir, 15 Sha’ban, to awaken the public opinion; also, through that, they have managed to reach out the community turning the institution of clergy into a powerful social network and organization.
The most important, most effective and most unique methods of organizing people were the use of the religious methods which had been used during the days of Tasu’a and Ashura before the revolution. The sociological significance of this method of organization has also come as a surprise to foreign scientists. In this communication network, people were encouraged by lectures and speeches, distributing leaflets and statements, providing financial support to revolutionaries and families affected by the revolution, distributing some of the necessary and scarce goods, setting up the loan funds and so on.
Along with this communication network, we can mention another traditional organization, the market, which had close ties with the clergy and the mosques. The group’s religious affiliation with the clergy, that is to say, the cultural factor, played an important role in their support of Imam Khomeini’s movement. Overall, the market has been a pillar of the political struggle against the government since the late 19th century.
Universities, along with some religious intellectuals, acted as another mobilizing organization in the community, though they were much more limited than the clergy. Students and their associations were among the most important factors in establishing the communication network and disseminating revolutionary ideals in different parts of the city.
Alongside these traditional organizations, one can point to the formation of some new communication organizations created by Imam Khomeini for specific purposes. Among them is the establishment of the Public Relations Committee at Imam Khomeini’s office in Paris. The office succeeded in helping Imam Khomeini overcome the media boycott which he was facing and making the best use of the French communication and media network such that Imam Khomeini’s media activity during his stay in France – about four months – had been twice more than his activities during his residence in Najaf which reflects the depth, intensity and extent of his political activity.
Population: In Islamic Iran, the vast majority of strata, classes, and groups of society, from workers to government employees and students, whether urban or rural, have unanimously opposed the Pahlavi political regime and responded positively to the call of the revolutionary mobilizers. Two factors underlined the intensity and depth of the Iranian Revolution: the collective will of the people which was politically formed and the focus of this will on fundamental changes in the political and social system as well as the values that were governing the society.
In addition to the deep penetration of Islamic ideology in society and social groups and its acceptance by the people as the unifying factor, the prominent and powerful role of Imam Khomeini’s personality and propagation method as a unique political-religious leader at that time, and the effective factors in organizing the revolution all of which had an impact on the mobilization of the masses, other factors have played a role in the expansion and participation of the people. Solidarity between the leaders and the public is one of the factors influencing people’s participation. In this regard, religion plays the most significant role in encouraging the mass of people.
The maraja’ and clerics have a spiritual relationship with the masses and their decrees and opinions have been accepted by Iranian society. This has organized the largest political mobilization in the history of world revolutions whereas in the French and Russian revolutions, as manifestations of the ideologies ruling the two main parts of the world, the participation of the masses has been minimal. The nature of the former political regime has played a role in mobilizing the masses of society and their contribution to the revolution.
The Pahlavi regime had incorporated dictatorship and oppression into its structure. Consequently, since every action has an opposing reaction, the more the government oppressed the people, the more the opposition to the popular groups was expanded and so they used every opportunity to show their discontent with the regime and reacted positively to the call of their leaders.
When the reformist groups were discouraged from continuing their movements before the 1970s, and the advocators of the armed struggle were either in jail or were fighting against the Pahlavi government in secret, Imam Khomeini offered people the hope of breaking this deadlock in order to spread the spirit of struggle among all people. In Imam Khomeini’s thought, there was neither the armed struggle nor the formation of political parties or reconciliation with the powers, but following the divine movements of prophets, he chose the cultural method.
Considering the social and cultural context of Iran in the late years of the Pahlavi regime, which reflected the religious affiliation of the majority and the cohesion of the various classes of the population within the framework of the Islamic religion, Imam Khomeini, by disseminating the principles of the Islamic political thought, especially Shi’ah religious jurisprudence through a community where the overwhelming majority of its population were living an Islamic life, was able to reject the imperial system and the social deviances resulting from Pahlavi rule and provide a clear picture of the future political system within the framework of the theory of Wilayat al-Faqih.
Imam Khomeini introduced a political system within the community that was close to the cultural and social values of the society and maintained its stability and durability. Along with outlining the favourable status of the future political system, Imam Khomeini while using various mobilizing tools and features, especially demonstrations and strikes, provided the basis for people’s participation and, as John Foran, in his book “Fragile Resistance” says, brought the largest population in human history to the streets.
Imam Khomeini used strong communication networks such as clergy and mosques, markets and universities and their close relationships with people to mobilize the masses during the revolution. For Imam Khomeini, people were at the centre of the struggle, and on this basis, the armed struggle, as well as the reformist and parliamentary struggles, were rejected for the reasons already mentioned, and they were superseded by the strategy of mobilizing the people.
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